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Background of the Vietnam War

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The Vietnam War was a long-term conflict between the North Vietnamese communist government and South Vietnam and its main ally, the United States. The conflict escalated because it coincided with the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union.

More than 3 million people (including more than 58,000 Americans) died in the Vietnam War, and more than half the victims were Vietnamese civilians.

Background of the Vietnam War
Vietnam, a country in Southeast Asia at the eastern end of the Indochina peninsula. This region has been under French colonial rule since the 19th century.

During World War II, Japanese troops invaded Vietnam. To fight the Japanese invaders and the French colonial government, Ho Chi Minh’s political leaders – inspired by Chinese and Soviet communism – formed the Viet Minh (League for Vietnamese Independence).

After the defeat in World War II, Japan withdrew its troops from Vietnam. This withdrawal caused the French-educated Emperor Bao Dai to rise to the top of power.

Seeing the opportunity to seize control, the Ho Viet Minh army immediately moved. As a concrete step they took over the northern city of Hanoi and declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) with Ho as president.

In an effort to regain control of the region, France supported Emperor Bao and established the Vietnamese state in July 1949, with the city of Saigon as its capital.

Both parties want the same thing: a united Vietnam. But both also embrace different ideological concepts.

Ho and his supporters want a nation that mimics the model of other communist countries. While Bao and his supporters want a Vietnam with close economic and cultural relations with the West.

The start of the Vietnam War
After Ho’s communist forces took power in the north, armed conflict between the northern and southern armies aided by France continued until the decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 ended in victory for northern Viet Minh forces. France’s defeat at the battle also marked the end of almost a century of French colonial rule in Indo-China.

The next agreement was signed in July 1954 at the Geneva conference separating Vietnam along the latitude known as the 17th Parallel (17 degrees north latitude), with Ho holding control in the North and Bao in the South. The agreement also requires national elections for reunification planned to be held in 1956.

However, in 1955, the highly anti-communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem removed Emperor Bao and became President of the Government of the Republic of South Vietnam.

With the Cold War expanding throughout the world, the United States issued a strict policy towards allies of the Soviet Union. In 1955 President Dwight D. Eisenhower pledged his strong support to Diem and South Vietnam.

With training and equipment from the American military and CIA, Diem security forces cracked down on Viet Minh sympathizers in the south. He called them Viet Cong (or Vietnamese Communists) and arrested around 100,000 people. Many of them were tortured and brutally executed.

In 1957, Viet Cong and other opponents of the repressive Diem regime began to fight and attack government officials and important figures in South Vietnam. Two years later they began to engage in gun battles with the South Vietnamese army.

In December 1960, many of Diem’s ​​enemies in South Vietnam – both communist and non-communist – formed the National Liberation Front (NLF) to organize resistance to the regime.

Although the NLF claims to be autonomous and that most of its members are not communists, many people in Washington consider the organization to be a puppet of Hanoi, North Vietnam.

Domino theory
A team sent by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 to report on conditions in South Vietnam suggested gathering American military, economic and technical assistance to help Diem deal with the Viet Cong threat.

Based on the “domino theory,” which states that if one Southeast Asian country fell into communism, many other countries would follow suit, Kennedy increasing US aid.

By 1962, the US military presence in South Vietnam had reached around 9,000 troops. This number increased rapidly compared to the 1950s which were only around 800 troops.

United States and Allied Aggression
In November 1963, the President of South Vietnam was coup by some of his own generals. The coup led to political instability in South Vietnam.

The political instability led South Vietnamese leaders to persuade Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Defense Secretary Robert McNamara to further enhance US military and economic support.

In August 1964, after the DRV torpedo ship attacked two US destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson ordered revenge bombing with military targets in North Vietnam.

Congress immediately passed the Tonkin Bay Resolution, which gave Johnson greater war power. With the issuance of the resolution, US aircraft began regular bomb attacks, codenamed Operation Rolling Thunder, the following year.

In March 1965, Johnson made the decision – with strong support from the American public – to send US combat troops to the battlefield in Vietnam. In June, 82,000 combat troops were stationed in Vietnam and military leaders added another 175,000 at the end of 1965 to support struggling South Vietnamese troops.

The policy turned out to increase the concerns of politicians and the population of the United States, thus creating an anti-war movement.

But Johnson remained unmoved by the wave of protest. In addition to the United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia and New Zealand are also committed to fighting in South Vietnam (albeit on a much smaller scale).

The battle is getting hotter
The South-US Vietnam war effort in the south was more focused mainly on the ground, largely under the command of General William Westmoreland, in coordination with General Nguyen Van Thieu’s government in Saigon.

Westmoreland issued a command to kill as many enemy forces as possible rather than trying to secure territory. In 1966, large areas of South Vietnam had been designated a “war zone”, where all innocent civilians had to be evacuated and only enemies remained.

Heavy bombing by B-52s or firing made these zones uninhabitable. Therefore refugees were placed in camps in designated safe areas near Saigon and other cities.

However, the massive attacks by South Vietnam and the US did not deter North Vietnamese troops. Even as the number of enemy troops continued to increase, the DRV and Viet Cong forces still refused to stop fighting. North Vietnamese troops were able to reoccupy the freed areas with the help of troops and supplies through the Ho Chi Minh route that passed through Cambodia and Laos. In addition, North Vietnam is also supported by China and the Soviet Union in strengthening air defenses.

Protests against the Vietnam War
In November 1967, the number of American troops in Vietnam was close to 500,000 and US casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 injured. As the war continued, some soldiers began to doubt the government’s decision to keep them in Vietnam, along with Washington’s repeated claims that the war had been won.

Entering the final years of the war, US forces have experienced physical and psychological setbacks. This caused new problems in the As troops, because many of them were depressed.

Between July 1966 and December 1973, more than 503,000 US military personnel were displaced and a strong anti-war movement among American troops gave birth to protests against the killings, and mass arrests carried out by US personnel stationed in Vietnam.

Bombarded by horrific images of war on their television sets, US residents turned against the government.

In October 1967, around 35,000 demonstrators staged massive protests outside the Pentagon. Opponents of the war argue that Vietnamese civilians are the main victims and the United States is seen as supporting the corrupt dictatorship in Saigon, South Vietnam.

On the other hand, North Vietnamese guerrillas are increasingly motivated to win the war following the weakening of the power of South Vietnam and the United States.

North Vietnamese Offensive Strategy
At the end of 1967, Hanoi’s communist leadership attempted to make a major blow aimed at forcing the United States to retreat.

On January 31, 1968, around 70,000 DRV troops under General Vo Nguyen Giap launched the Tet Offensive (named for the lunar new year), a series of coordinated attacks in more than 100 cities and cities in South Vietnam.

Although shocked, U.S. troops and South Vietnam continued to fight back quickly, and the communists could not take control of one of the city’s targets for more than a day or two.

The Tet operation report shocked the US public, especially after appearing to say that Westmoreland had requested 200,000 additional troops.

On the other hand US public support for the war continued to decline. These conditions forced Johnson, who was at the end of his term of office, to stop the pace of bombing in much of North Vietnam and promised to dedicate the remainder of his term to seeking peace.

Johnson’s new tactic, laid out in a March 1968 speech, received a positive response from Hanoi, and peace talks between the US and North Vietnam opened in Paris in May.

Unfortunately after South Vietnam and the NLF entered into the talks, the talks were deadlocked.

Vietnamization
The new US President, Richard M. Nixon, is trying to undermine the anti-war movement by trying to attract the support of the majority of Americans who have been silent. He believed they would support the war effort.

In an effort to limit the volume of American victims, he announced a program called Vietnamization. The program was implemented to withdraw US troops, increase air strikes and artillery, as well as provide the South Vietnamese military training needed to effectively control ground warfare.

In addition to this Vietnamisation policy, Nixon continued peace talks in Paris, adding high-level secret talks conducted by Foreign Minister Henry Kissinger which began in the spring of 1968.

North Vietnam continues to demand the withdrawal of the US military as a whole as a condition of peace. The result was that peace talks had stopped.

My Lai Massacre
The following years saw more brutal mass killings, including a horrific admission that US troops massacred more than 400 unarmed civilians in the village of My Lai in March 1968.

After the My Lai Massacre, anti-war protests continued to develop as the conflict continued. In 1968 and 1969, hundreds of protest marches and meetings were held throughout the country.

On November 15, 1969, the largest anti-war demonstration in American history took place in Washington, D.C … At that time more than 250,000 Americans gathered peacefully. They called for the withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam.

The anti-war movement, which is very strong on campuses, breaks US public opinion. For some young people, war symbolizes an uncontrolled form of authority. While for other Americans, opposing the government is considered unpatriotic and treasonous.

When the first US troops were withdrawn, those who remained remained increasingly angry and frustrated, compounded by problems of enthusiasm and leadership. Tens of thousands of soldiers received disrespectful releases for defection and around 500,000 Americans from 1965-73 were required to undergo “military service,” many people fled to Canada to avoid military service.

Increased Strength of Protest Waves
In 1970, a joint US-South Vietnam operation invaded Cambodia. The attack aims to wipe out the DRV supply base there. South Vietnam then led their own invasion of Laos, but was repelled by North Vietnam.

The invasion of these countries, which violated international law, triggered a new wave of protests on campuses across America. One of them, on May 4, 1970, at Kent State University in Ohio, National Guardsmen opened fire and killed four students. At another protest 10 days later, two students at Jackson State University in Mississippi were killed by police.

At the end of June 1972, after a failed attack on South Vietnam, Hanoi finally agreed to compromise. Kissinger and North Vietnam’s representatives drafted a peace agreement in early fall, but leaders in Saigon refused.

In fact in December Nixon authorized a number of bombing attacks on targets in Hanoi and Haiphong. The attack was known as the Christmas Bombing, the attack invited international condemnation.

Vietnam War Ends

In January 1973, the United States and North Vietnam completed a final peace agreement which simultaneously ended open hostilities between the two countries. However, the war between North and South Vietnam continued until April 30, 1975, when DRV forces captured Saigon, renaming it to Ho Chi Minh City (Ho himself died in 1969).

More than two decades of violent conflict have caused great harm to the Vietnamese population. After years of war, around 2 million Vietnamese were killed, while another 3 million were injured and 12 million were refugees. The war destroyed the country’s infrastructure and economy, and reconstruction was slow.

In 1976, Vietnam united as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Despite this sporadic violence continues for the next 15 years, including conflicts with neighboring countries, China and Cambodia.

Only under the free market policy that was imposed in 1986, the Vietnamese economy began to improve, driven by oil export revenues and foreign capital inflows.

Trade and diplomatic relations between Vietnam and the US also began to be established in the 1990s.

In the United States, the effects of the Vietnam War lasted even after the last troops returned home in 1973. The country spent more than $ 120 billion on conflict in Vietnam from 1965-1973. This massive expenditure caused widespread inflation, exacerbated by the world oil crisis in 1973 and skyrocketing fuel prices.

Psychologically, the effect is even deeper. The war has broken down America’s invincible myth and has divided the nation. Many veterans return to the negative reactions of the anti-war movement (which considers them to have killed innocent civilians) and their supporters (who see them losing the war).

In 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was inaugurated in Washington, D.C. On it were the names of 58,200 American men and women killed or missing in the war.

Tragic Fate of Prostitutes in the Japanese Period

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Jugun Ianfu was an entertainer who accompanied the Japanese army during the war period. As the name implies, since the years 1942-1945 or the Asia Pacific War period they were required to meet the biological needs of Japanese military troops in a rough, inhumane, and in large numbers. The Ianfu Jugun actually understood that they had resisted the signs of normality or Eastern culture, but the Japanese army’s deception, threats, and terror succeeded in conquering them, so there was no other choice but to become the Ianfu Jugun.

The Beginning of the existence of Ianfu Jugun
The first official Ianjo Jugun Ianfu was first established in 1932 in Shanghai. The establishment was motivated by the spread of rape cases committed by the Japanese army during the Japan-China War. The brutal rape caused venereal disease to spread among Japanese soldiers.

Jugun Ianfu was an entertainer who accompanied the Japanese army during the war period. As the name implies, since the years 1942-1945 or the Asia Pacific War period they were required to meet the biological needs of Japanese military troops in a rough, inhumane, and in large numbers. The Ianfu Jugun actually understood that they had resisted the signs of normality or Eastern culture, but the Japanese army’s deception, threats, and terror succeeded in conquering them, so there was no other choice but to become the Ianfu Jugun.

The Beginning of the existence of Ianfu Jugun
The first official Ianjo Jugun Ianfu was first established in 1932 in Shanghai. The establishment was motivated by the spread of rape cases committed by the Japanese army during the Japan-China War. The brutal rape caused venereal disease to spread among Japanese soldiers.

This certainly weakened the strength of the Japanese imperial army. Therefore the idea emerged to recruit local women, select health and include them in Ianjo-Ianjo as Japanese military brothels.

At the beginning of the formation of the Ianfu Jugun system, the Japanese government hoped that with appropriate entertainment for the soldiers it could improve morale and performance and avoid the venereal disease of its troops.

To support the plan, places of entertainment / Ianjo were built for the army in the front line. It was at Ianjo-Ianjo that the Ianfu Jugun were placed to satisfy the desires of the Japanese army. The Ianfu Jugun System is organized in a well planned manner.

At the beginning of the Asia Pacific War, the Japanese government recruited Jugun Ianfu on a massive scale through the conventional method of posting advertisements offering jobs as prostitutes. These advertisements appeared in newspapers published in Japan and Japanese colonies, such as in Korea, Manchukuo, and the Chinese plains.

The response to the advertisement was initially quite good. Many women voluntarily register themselves and there are women who are sold by their own families for economic reasons.

Even so, many women are tricked or tricked into joining military brothels. Even the Japanese forced Hui Muslim girls in China to serve them as sex slaves by establishing a “Huimin Girl” school and enrolling Hui daughters to school to serve as Jugun Ianfu.

Everyday life of the Ianfu Jugun

Health problems are something that cannot be avoided from this kind of work. Therefore, soldiers are recommended to use safety devices or condoms, but not a few of them use condoms that have been dirty, even many who do not want to use these objects.

Condoms provided at entertainment venues are the responsibility of the Army Finance Department and Logistics Headquarters. They are responsible for sending condoms to areas occupied by the Japanese army and also ensuring that condoms are ready for use. In 1942, for example, accounting for 32.1 million condoms had been sent to various units outside Japan.

In Japanese military entertainment venues, women’s reproductive rights are greatly ignored. Although contracting venereal disease is something bad for these women, there is something even worse that is pregnancy.

To prevent cases of pregnancy, women are generally given a kind of herb from plants to prevent pregnancy. When they are already pregnant they are forced to abort their fetuses by using pills.

But there are also places of entertainment that allow the Ianfu Jugun to give birth with certain conditions, but after that they must return to serve the soldiers. In addition to drugs, there are also places of entertainment that sterilize Jugun Ianfu so that they can no longer menstruate.

As the Japanese army expanded its power, the need for entertainment for Japanese troops also increased, in other words voluntary-based prostitution became insufficient. In remote areas that need employment, good paid jobs are attractive in order to meet their needs.

However, when these tactics cannot run smoothly to recruit Jugun Ianfu, direct recruitment becomes a solution. This direct recruitment is a recruitment carried out directly by the police or the local government, which usually uses violence against the women they recruit.

They went to the houses of the people, then kidnapped their daughters to become Jugun Ianfu. In the end, women were conditioned to become sex slaves under the very binding National Mobilization General Law.

Being Jugun Ianfu who was forced to suffer all day long. There are necessities of life for the Ianfu Jugun, Japanese attitudes can be distinguished in two periods, namely the initial period of occupation, which is characterized by abundance, where the needs for the Ianfu Jugun are fulfilled, such as nutritious food, medicines, to bathing facilities, and difficult periods, around 1943, which was marked by a decline in food supplies and tight rationing.

As for the entertainment of the Ianfu jugun, the brothel manager does not provide special facilities except in Telawang in the form of a ticket to watch the play. Near the brothel there is also a restaurant which is sometimes invited by his guest Jugun Ianfu to eat and drink in the restaurant

One interesting practice of Japanese brothels is the name change system, from local names to Japanese names. Everyone who is recruited by Japan will immediately be given a Japanese name and must not forget to use it.

The Ianfu Jugun do not know exactly why there was a change of name. They themselves did not dare to question the change of name. But they suspected that the change was intended to have a special effect on the Japanese who entered the brothel, because they also called the name Jugun Ianfu using the Japanese name.

Jugun Ianfu in Indonesia
In Indonesia, the practice of Ianug Jugun began to take place since the arrival of Japanese troops. Ianjo – Ianjo was established in important cities in Java such as Batavia, Bandung, Ambarawa, Muntilan and Semarang. Not only local women were made as Jugun Ianfu, but Dutch women also did not escape the recruitment process.

Women who do not want to serve the passions of the Japanese Army are threatened with torture and their families will be killed. They were often beaten, kicked and raped the first night. Some of these women were raped by army leaders and also by some brothel managers. One medical officer, who carried out regular health checks on these women, also raped them.

According to testimony, a woman attempted suicide by taking a large dose of quinine, but failed. He was then sent to a mental hospital. Another woman also tried to kill herself by cutting off her veins, but to no avail. Some women tried to escape the brothel, but they were immediately arrested and brought back. A girl was unconscious for two days because she was shocked because she was raped. Some get pregnant and have an abortion.

Entertainers have added to the long list of violent practices during the Japanese occupation. The inhumane treatment they received caused tremendous trauma at that time. Not only that, they must also endure psychological inheritance even after half a century later.

Unveiling the practice of Ianfu jugun
In 1992, for the first time Kim Hak Soon the South Korean victim opened her voice to the Japanese military atrocities against her to the public. After that the issue of Jugun Ianfu was revealed and one by one the victims from various countries spoke up.

Then in 2000 the Tokyo Tribunal was held to hold Emperor Hirohito and the Japanese military accountable for the practice of sexual slavery during the Asia Pacific war. In 2001 a final decision was issued at The Haque Tribunal.

After that international pressure on the Japanese government continued. In October 2007 the United States Congress passed a non-binding resolution that pressured the Japanese government to fulfill political responsibility on this issue. Even so, the Japanese government has yet to recognize what has been done to hundreds of thousands of women in Asia during the Asia Pacific war.

Aztecs in Mexico

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Almost simultaneously in the 15th century CE, Latin American and Andean communities each united politically in an empire that covered most of the region. In each region, the establishment of the kingdom was carried out by a new community, from which this new community expanded its political dominion. One of these new communities is the Aztecs.

The Aztecs are known to have high civilization, with artificial floating islands to support their agriculture. Apart from having advanced agriculture, the Aztecs were also known through their cruel human sacrificial ceremonial traditions.

The emergence of the Aztecs
The Aztecs were originally a mob of barbarian smugglers who entered the Telaga District (a refugee area after the collapse of the Toltec Kingdom in the 12th century). In this region they received cultural influences from other refugees, between the art of war and the ritual of human sacrifice.

In the last quarter of the fourteenth century, they began settling on several uninhabited islands in the northwestern bay of Lake Texcoco, Mexico. By the Aztecs this new, inhospitable environment was transformed into a habitable area by cutting down layers of lush vegetation and making this new environment accessible. Plant waste is then converted into artificial floating islands for farming.

With a strong will, the Aztecs became skilled urban and agricultural planners. Furthermore, they also became long-distance traders, who combined trade with military-savvy works.

The Aztecs made their way to military and political power through dedication as mercenaries to the rule of the Tepanec kingdom. In 1428, the Aztecs from Tenochtitlan, one of the two Aztec cities, seized the Tepanec empire in the lake-districts they helped build as mercenaries.

The leading figure in the Aztec movement was Tlacaelel, who survived as a political adviser to three successive Tenochtitlan rulers. Tlacaelel began the movement by annexing and combining the twin Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, and its close north neighbor, Tlatecoli. He also allied with other local city states located around Lake Texcoco, namely the state of Acolhua Texcoco, and Tlacopan. This centralization of power under the Tenochtitlan government allowed the Aztecs to establish an empire on the plains of Mexico in 1428 AD with its first emperor, Itzcoatl (1427-1440).

Under the leadership of the second emperor, Moctezuma I (1440-1469), the Aztec was made a strong political and cultural unit with Tenochtitlan as its capital. The Aztecs reached the height of their glory in the Ahuitzotl government (around 1486-1502), which multiplied the territory of the Aztecs. At that time the Aztec region stretched across Latin America, from coast to coast, covering the tip of the Atlantic and also the tip of the Pacific.

The Aztec Kingdom cannot be denied having a large area, but the vast territory is not comprehensive. People who fell under Aztec domination found the rigors of life. The residents were partly depressed because of the placement of permanent garrisons in their area. Under coercion, they were forced to pay high tribute, including boys and girls for sacrifices in addition to food, textiles, stones, and precious metals.

Aztec Life
For the Latin American region at that time, the Aztecs could be said to have high civilization. Aztec residents meet their food needs, by relying on food crops cultivated on a number of Chinampas (artificial islands). The floating islands were built on Danua Texcoco.

The food supply was also supported by agricultural products from the Aztec conquered land, which produced corn, beans, cocoa, cotton, and mining products such as gold, silver and nephrite.

The Aztecs marched around Mexico to what is now the United States, and south to Colombia. They sell high-value goods made by craftsmen such as clothing, jewelry, household furniture, and ceremonial equipment. Traders bought turquoise stones from the Pueblo Indians in the north. From the south a brightly colored bird feather was brought in to make a coat, fan, headdress and shield decoration.

Aztec society is composed militaristically. All young men must serve in the army from the age of 17 to 22 years. Some of them serve longer, if he really has the ability.

The Aztecs took over the Latin American calendar system accurately, and they combined their ancestral religion with the religion of the previous settlers, so as to create a pantheism and complicated rituals such as Hinduism.

They also made manuscripts composed of pictograms and phonemes of word plays, which were more practical than traditional Latin American pictographs, and they produced some very introspective poetic works.

United States Mexico War

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The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) became the first armed conflict in the United States that took place abroad. As for Mexico, the war was a major disaster.

In the war, America faced Mexico which was politically divided and militarily unprepared to face US expansionist policies. At that time US President James K. Polk, believed the United States had a real destiny to rule the entire continent in the Pacific Ocean.

Fighting at the border along the Rio Grande marked the start of fierce fighting between the two countries. By the time the war ended, Mexico had lost about a third of its territory, including almost all of California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico today.

Background of the Mexican-American War
In 1836, Texas gained its independence from Mexico. Initially, the United States refused to include it in the union, mainly because of political interests that opposed the addition of a new slave state.

However, the United States changed its mind and began the procedure of annexation (forced land acquisition to be united with its own land) after the election of Polk in 1844. He campaigned that Texas had to be re-annexed and the Oregon region must be reoccupied.

In addition to the two regions, Polk is also eyeing California, New Mexico and the rest that are now known as the US Southwest.

Polk had tried to buy these areas, but his offer of 30 million US dollars was rejected by Mexico. As a result of this rejection, he began provoking warfare by moving US troops into the disputed zone between the Rio Grande and the Nueces River that was previously recognized by both countries as part of the state of Coahuila, Mexico.

Mexican-American War Begins

Mexico is known to be very protective of its territory and even had time to warn America not to try to annex. Therefore, when US troops began to move into the Rio Grande region, the Mexican military immediately responded.

On April 25, 1846, the Mexican cavalry attacked a group of US troops commanded by General Zachary Taylor in the disputed zone. The attack killed about a dozen US troops.

They then surrounded the American fortress along the Rio Grande. Faced with the siege, Taylor called in reinforcements. With the help of superior rifles and artillery, they were able to defeat Mexican troops in the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma.

After the battle, Polk told the US Congress that his patience had run out. He wants to defeat Mexico, before his neighbor begins to enter US territory. Two days later, on May 13, 1846, Congress formally declared war, despite opposition from some members of parliament, the war continued.

While on the other hand, no official declaration of war has ever come out of the Mexican Government.

United States Army Movement
At that time, only around 75,000 Mexicans lived north of the Rio Grande. As a result, US troops led by Colonel Stephen W. Kearny and Commodore Robert F. Stockton were able to conquer the land with minimal casualties. Taylor also experienced little difficulty when he took Monterrey in September.

In the midst of the fierce war, the former president and general of Mexico, Anonio Lopez de Santa Anna who was exiled in Cuba contacted Polk. Santa Anna assured Polk that if she were allowed to return to Mexico, she would end the war on favorable terms for the United States. Polk agreed with the idea, so he immediately sent a ship to bring Santa Anna from Cuba to Mexico.

When he arrived in Mexico, however, he became Polk’s new enemy by taking control of the Mexican army and leading him into battle. At the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847, many Santa Anna troops were killed so he was forced to retreat.

Despite losing the battle, he actually took part in the Mexican presidential election the following month.

Meanwhile, US forces led by General Winfield Scott landed in Veracruz and took over the city. They then began marching towards Mexico City, which basically followed the same route that Hernán Cortés took when he attacked the Aztec empire.

The Mexicans fought back at Cerro Gordo and elsewhere, but were always defeated. In September 1847, Scott managed to surround Chapultepec Castle in the City of Mexico. During the siege, a group of military school cadets called niños héroes purportedly committed suicide rather than surrender.

End of the Mexico-United States War: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Mexican guerrilla attacks on US forces continue, but the end of the war is visible. Santa Anna has resigned and the United States is waiting for a new government capable of negotiating. Thus the United States can be said to have won the war.

Finally, on February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed. This agreement concludes the Rio Grande (Formerly the Nueces River) as the new US-Mexico border. In addition, Mexico also acknowledged US annexation in Texas, and agreed to sell California and its remaining territory north of the Rio Grande for $ 15 million. Later the purchased territory became the states of California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Oklahoma and Kansas.

War for 26 months must be paid handsomely. Of the 79,000 American troops who participated, 13,200 died during the war. Most are victims of diseases such as dysentery, yellow fever, malaria and smallpox. On the other hand, Mexico also lost many troops, most historians estimate that as many as 25,000 soldiers and civilians were killed.

Che Guevara Against Imperialism in Latin America

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Argentine-born revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara is famous throughout the world for his commitment to defending international social justice during the mid-20th century. Although he was hated and loved for his guerrilla warfare tactics he advocated in Cuba, Congo and Bolivia, his writings continued to offer insights on world history from an internationalist perspective.

People identify with a sense of social justice, idealism, and rebellion. An Argentine who fights for independence in Cuba, Congo and Bolivia. Guevara is a new human representative without a state committed to international socialism. His published criticisms of capitalism and imperialism reflect an understanding that these two problems and solutions of the 20th century are global.

Che Guevara’s Struggle Background
Ernesto Che Guebara was born in Rosario, Argentina in 1928. He studied at home until the age of 9, due to severe asthma. Throughout his life, he loved to read and in adulthood, he had knowledge of subjects that included literature, Latin American poetry, and Spanish, French existentialist philosophy, Marxism, psychology, and archeology.

In December 1952, Guevara rested for eight months from medical school to go to South America with a friend. On his journey he witnessed the general condition of indigenous peoples throughout South America and was particularly moved by the conditions of copper miners in Chile. He linked the problems of the Latin American economy with large penetration by foreign companies.

After graduating in 1953, Guevara continued his journey to the capital of Guatemala, where President Jacobo Arbenz opposed the claims of the United States of America in the fertile land of Guatemala. In this place Guevara met Hilda Gadea, a Perus activist who introduced her to the idea of ​​Mao Zedong. Together they witnessed a coup sponsored by C.I.A to overthrow Arbenz in 1954, while simultaneously dropping Guatemala into a period of political violence for 4 decades.

The Guatemalan coup further convinced Guevara that the main problem of the American Exercise in the 1950s was “Yankee Imperialism”. He understood this imperialism as a combined political, military and economic power created by US policy makers and companies and their local collaborators on the economies of the Latin American region. This also convinced him that an armed revolution would be needed to overcome the problem in much of Latin America.

Struggle in Cuba

Guevara and Gadea split after the fall of the Guatemalan government, both of whom sought refuge in their respective national embassies. However, by chance they met again in Mexico City and decided to get married.

It was in Mexico City that Guevara met with Fidel Castro, who had just failed to overthrow the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1953. After serving a prison sentence of less than two years, Castro and other Cuban exiles met again in Mexico City. The meeting developed a relationship between Vsdtro and Guevara.

These exiles shared with Guevara their concern for the strength of the United States that enveloped Latin America and planned to take the fight. Finally, on November 25, 1956, eighty-one Cubans and Guevara launched their invasion of Cuba.

Initially, Guevara was trusted as a doctor in the group, but he also proved himself to be an excellent guerrilla warrior, and earned the highest rank among the rebels.

In January 1958 he and his comrades made it to Havana, which marked the victory of the revolutionary forces in Cuba.

During the war, Guevara founded a school to teach guerrilla fighters to read, print pamphlets, and use radio stations. In Cuba, he met Aleida March who became his second wife. He then published the first official history of the Cuban Revolution and popularized the foco guerrilla war, which argued that a small group of committed individuals could create conditions for revolution on a broader scale.

After the war, Guevara served as industry minister and head of the national bank. However, in many publications, his speech was known throughout the world as the face of the Cuban Revolution which made him a loved and hated celebrity.

As a new human prototype, Guevara is motivated by moral incentives and hopes to eliminate money. He also encouraged international cooperation to build a socialist society. Guevara represented humanist Marxism, offering a new possibility for communists who opposed Stalinism.

End of Guevara’s Struggle
Although known as a diligent bureaucrat, that position does not suit him. In 1965, Guevara disappeared from Cuba. He calmly organized a guerrilla war for independence in Congo.

Despite leaving his Kuban citizenship in a farewell letter with Castro, Guevara returned to Cuba in March 1966.

Next he launched the last failed guerrilla campaign, hoping to inspire a peasant revolution in Bolivia. His guerrillas fought in their last battle on October 8, 1967 against the Bolivian army who cooperated with C.I.A. During the battle Guevara was captured and executed the following day.

The controversy includes the revolutionary method handed down by Guevara, but his analysis of imperialism as a way to understand the past and the present offers insight into world history from an internationalist perspective, and not a commitment to the state / nation. His ideas and sacrifice continue to inspire the social justice movement. While Guevara’s place in world history as a global revolutionary will always be remembered. While his contribution as a social and political thinker continues.

Fighting Stigma

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Humans indeed have long entered modern mada. Various advances also occur in every line of life. However, not all humans can enjoy this progress. Many minority groups who until now still have difficulty enjoying independence as a whole human being. One of the minority groups is the disabled group. As the largest minority, the diffable are still difficult in spite of all forms of discrimination and stigma that haunt them throughout life. Indeed, since the 19th century many policies emerged for them, but not all of these regulations can be applied. This condition is trying to change by Helen Keller.

As a disabled person, he really understands how difficulties are faced in living life. But he did not give up, he continued to study and study until he finally became an activist engaged in defending the right of the disabled.

Vision and hearing loss
Helen Adams Keller was born on June 27, 1880, in Tuscumbia, Alabam. He is the first child of two siblings, the son of Arhur H. Keller and Katherine Adams Keller. His father was editor of a local newspaper weekly and had served as captain of the Confederate Army during the Civil War in America (Keller, 1903: 4). His family is not very rich and earns income from their cotton plantations.

Keller was born with his sense of sight and hearing. He started talking when he was only 6 months old and started walking at the age of 1 year.

In February 1882, when Keller was 19 months old, he was stricken with a disease called “brain fever”. The pain was so severe that doctors thought Keller would not survive (Keller, 1903: 7).

After the fever began to fade, Keller’s mother noticed that her daughter showed no reaction when the dinner bell rang or when a hand waved in front of her face. From then on, his family concluded that Keller had lost his sight and hearing.

Keller who lost two important senses, then developed a method of limited communication with his friend, Martha Washington, the young daughter of the family cook. Both of them have created a kind of sign language.

However, a change in attitude occurred to Keller, he became very wild and difficult to manage. He will kick and scream when angry, and giggle uncontrollably when happy. He tortured Martha and raged at her parents. Many family relatives felt he needed to be rehabilitated.

Meeting Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan
Despite being asked to send their children to a rehabilitation center, Keller’s parents prefer to find other solutions for their daughter. In 1886, Keller’s mother was inspired by Charles Dickens’ account of a successful education story for deaf and blind women, Laura Bridgman. Therefore, they invited young Keller to seek the advice of doctor J. Julian Chisholm, an eye specialist, and ENT in Baltimore .

The doctor then referred Kellers to Alexander Graham Bell, who was dealing with deaf children. Bell advised them to contact the Perkins Blind Institute (Nielsen, 2004: 1).

Michael Anagnos, the school director asked the 20-year-old school alumnus (Chamberlain, 1899: 289), Anne Mansfield Sullivan, who also had a vision problem to become a teacher for Keller.

This meeting was the beginning of their close relationship for almost 50 years. During his time with Keller, Sullivan not only became a teacher but also became his best friend and friend.

Sullivan arrived at Keller’s house on March 5, 1887. That day was considered by Keller as the most important day of his life. Sullivan immediately began to teach him to communicate by spelling words using his hands, starting with “d-o-l-l” for a doll given to Keller (Keller, 1903: 22).

At first Keller was frustrated because he did not understand that each object has a word that uniquely identifies it. In fact, when Sullivan tried to teach Keller the word for “mug,” Keller became so frustrated that he broke the mug.

But he was soon able to imitate Sullivan’s hand movements. “I didn’t know that I spell the word or even the words exist,” Keller remembers. “I just made my fingers mimic like a monkey.”

In the following month Keller’s communication continued to develop. One that made his enthusiasm for learning even greater was when he discovered how to spell “water”. With the one-handed method of sensing the movements of his teacher, while one-hand flowing with cold water, he succeeded in finding ideas about water (Rankin, 1908: 86). After that, Sullivan also taught him to know various objects in the world.

Helen Keller’s Education
Within a few months Keller had learned to feel objects and associate them with words spelled with finger signals in the palm of his hand, to read sentences by feeling the words that appeared on the cardboard, and making his own sentences by arranging words in a frame.

During 1888-1890 Keller spent the winter at the Perkins Institute to study Braille. In March 1990, Keller’s desire to learn to speak emerged. He expressed his desire to Sullivan. His teacher then took him to meet Sarah Fuller at Horace Mann School for the Deaf. Under Fuller’s guidance, Keller began to learn to speak (Fuller, 1892: 24). In addition to learning to communicate, Keller also studies regular academic subjects.

Keller was not satisfied, because he was also determined to go to college. In 1896, he attended the Cambridge School for Young Ladies, a preparatory school for women. At this preparatory school, Keller was able to use using braille stationery, and read braille books about the history of Ynani, Rome, and the United States. In addition, he can use ordinary typewriters and Braille letters. He also studied French and Latin grammar. Nevertheless, there are still many people who still doubt whether he is able to attend lectures (Schraff, 2008: 28-29).

On the other hand, his story spread quickly, reaching the ears of famous and influential people. One of them was writer Mark Twain, who was very impressed with him. They became friends (Keller, 1903: 138).

Twain then introduced him to his friend Henry H. Rogers, a Standard Oil executive. Rogers was so impressed with Keller’s talent, enthusiasm, and determination that he agreed to pay for his studies at Radcliffe College (Harvard University women’s branch).

On that campus, he was still accompanied by Sullivan, who sat by his side to interpret lectures and literary texts. When he began college, Keller had mastered several methods of communication, including reading by touch, Braille, speaking, typing, and spelling with fingers. Therefore, he also took the time to write his first book Story of My Life, published in 1903.

Keller’s lectures were fairly smooth, because he successfully completed his studies in only 4 years and graduated with cum laude predictions (Hitz, 1906: 320). This graduation made him the first tunaganda to get a bachelor’s degree.

Become a Social Activist
After graduating, Keller began to learn more about the world and how he could help improve the lives of others. Keller became a member of the Socialist Party in 1909, most likely because of his friendship with John Macy, a lecturer at Harvard and husband Anne Sullivan. During his active membership in the party, he wrote several articles on socialism, women’s rights, disability rights, and the effects of war (Giffin, 1984: 1; Nielsen, 2004: 24).

His series of essays on socialism, entitled “Out of the Dark,” illustrates his views on socialism and world affairs. It was during this time that Keller first experienced public prejudice about his disability. Previously, the press always supported him, praising his courage and intelligence. However, after he expressed his socialist views, some media criticized and linked him with disabilities. The criticism shows that the American public still makes impairment as a reason to discriminate against others who are not in line with them.

However, this criticism did not dampen Keller’s spirit of activism. Because in 1915, together with famous city planner George Kessler, he took part in the founding of Helen Keller International. This organization has a mission to fight the causes and consequences of blindness and malnutrition.

The story spread outside Massachusetts and New England. By sharing his experiences, Keller became a disabled person who influenced his time. He even spoke before the Congress and advocated for the improvement of the welfare of the blind.

When the American Foundation for the Blind was founded in 1921, Keller was made a role model and symbol in the federation. Keller himself became a member of this federation in 1924 and participated in many campaigns to raise awareness, donations and support for the blind (Nielsen, 2004: 47). In addition to this federation, he also joined the Permanent Blind War Relief Fund organization (later called the American Braille Press).

In 1946, Keller was appointed as international relations advisor to the American Foundation of Overseas Blind. Between 1946 and 1957, he traveled to 35 countries on five continents.

Keller suffered a stroke in 1961 and spent the rest of his life in his home in Connecticut. He died in his sleep on June 1, 1968, only a few weeks before his 88th birthday (Schraff, 2008: 60).

During his extraordinary life, Keller became an example of how determination, hard work, and imagination can enable one to overcome obstacles. He overcame his difficult conditions with perseverance and developed into a progressive humanitarian activist who is respected by the world.

Korean War

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The Korean War was the first major conflict that occurred during the Cold War. The conflict between North and South Korea took place between June 1950 and July 27, 1953. The war known as the forgotten war claimed millions of lives. All of Korea embraced a terrible destruction and took decades to recover.

Historical Background of the Korean War

Korea is an area that is not too broad, because it only occupies 85.246 square miles of land. The Korean region is more of an archipelago, with a coastline of 5,400 miles and is heavily influenced by the sea.

Before 1945, Korea was a unity. The kingdom of ancient Korea was united by the Tang Dynasty in 668 AD. This united Korea survived for 1300 years before it finally broke.

Korea was split into two parts after maneuvers carried out by the Allies towards the end of World War II. During the war, Korea was a territory controlled by Japan. However, after Japan’s defeat in World War II, Korea was divided into two parts in the 38th parallel. The Soviets occupied North Korea, while the United States occupied the south.

After Korea was separated, the two superpower countries had invested in each other in mainland Korea. With the intensification of the World War between the Soviets and the United States, the dividing lines of North and South Korea became a new iron curtain that separated Koreans from each other. Although separated by the two parts of the region, it became a show of strength of the Soviet Union and the United States. Thus, conflicts between the two are very likely to occur.

North Korea’s leader, Kim II Sung is very ambitious to unite Korea. Therefore, he asked for the support of the Soviet Union leader, Joseph Stalin in April 1950. Stalin finally agreed to support the North Korean invasion of South Korea. He only asked Kim to ensure that the victory could be achieved and the Soviets would not intervene directly.

After obtaining Stalin’s support, Kim then visited the leader of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong in Beijing. Mao agreed that only military power could unite Korea. He also doubted the United States would pay attention to the war in Korea.

While Kim confidently told Mao that his army would rule all of Korea within three weeks, long before American intervention might occur.

The start of the Korean War

The war began on Sunday morning, June 25, 1950, after the North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) crossed the thirty-eighth parallel, supported by Soviet-made T-34 tanks. The attack was unexpected both in time and intensity.

Meanwhile, the Republic of Korea (South) forces who were not yet well-trained or had the weapons to meet the challenge withdrew. NKPA moved quickly, took over the Korean capital in Seoul, and then crossed the Han River and went west to the Kum River, then south to Taejon and Taegu. North Korea, under the auspices of the Soviet Union, wishes to make all of Korea a communist regime.

US President, Harry S. Truman, ordered US ground and air forces to evacuate residents. He also ordered the US Seventh Fleet to go to the Taiwan Strait to prevent confrontations between the Communists and Chinese Nationalists.

Within two days, the United Nations adopted a resolution proposed by the United States, which called on the troops of the People’s Democratic Republic of Korea to withdraw.

Although called upon to withdraw, the North Korean People’s Army moved further south. Truman who was worried about the power of North Korea authorized General Douglas MacArthur to send ground troops. Despite the presence of American troops, North Korean troops continue to move south.

The 24th Infantry Division, led by General William Dean, was the first to react to hampering the North Korean army. The division was then assisted by the Fifth Air Force who was transferred to Korea, although in the end it still could not stop the NKPA’s power.

In late July 1950, the United Nations took a position along the Naktong Perimeter to consolidate its forces consisting of: the First American Cavalry Division, the Second Infantry Division, the 24th Infantry Division, the 25th Infantry Division, and the First Marine Brigade, and five South Korean infantry divisions.

Immediately after the call from the United Nations, member states began sending troops and supplies. Britain was the first country to respond, placing their ships in Japanese waters under the command of the United Nations. Most countries cannot send many troops, but 17 have succeeded in giving at least financial strength to the United Nations Command.

Battle at Inchon and Yalu
On September 15, 1950, after expanding troops and building supply lines, General MacArthur began planning a plan which he had considered from the start. The operation was called Operation Chromite, which is the amphibious troop landing at the west coast port of Inchon.

As a preparation, he formed the X Corps under the command of General Edward (Ned) Almond. The force consisted of the Seventh Infantry Division (Army) and the First Marine Division. X Corps moves around the southern tip of Korea. Amphibians then landed on the morning of September 15, 1950 and within a few days had taken control of Inchon and the Kimpo Airfield. In October, Seoul was regained and returned to President Syngman Rhee.

Meanwhile, the Eighth Army under the leadership of Lieutenant General Walton H. Walker had crossed the line and moved north quickly. They cut off supply and communication lines, so NKPA was forced to withdraw. Two successes of the operation left the UN forces in thirty-eight parallels in early October. In many ways the war may have ended at this time.

However, this favorable situation was considered the right time for the United States to occupy all of Korea and restore it as a unitary state. After obtaining permission from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the United Nations, UN and Republic of Korea troops crossed the thirty-eight parallel and moved north.

Meanwhile the Eighth Army headed to the western side of the mountains, and the X Corps which had been moved by sea to the port of Wonsan, moved to the east side. Communication between the two forces is difficult. On Thanksgiving, the 17th Infantry Regiment in the US reached the Yalu River. It was at this point that the counterattack from South Korea and its supporters began.

The joining of China in the War
The People’s Republic of China has warned that if UN troops cross the thirty-eighth parallel, they will enter the war. But General MacArthur assured President Harry S. Truman that the threat would not occur.

In mid-October 1950, there were clashes with the Chinese army. Then, on November 23, nearly 200,000 Chinese troops attacked. They passed the frozen Yalu River and gathered strength during November. The UN Command was hit hard by China, so Walker began to withdraw and evacuate troops by sea as much as possible.

To the east, X Corps also suffered defeat. Soldiers and Marines are pulled out under heavy pressure from the Chinese attack and the weather has fallen almost 40 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. When the army and marines retreated to the port of Hungnam, the navy began evacuating on Christmas Eve.

Nearly 100,000 UN and Republic of Korea troops, as well as most refugees, were evacuated. By December 25, the port had been destroyed, and most UN troops headed for Pusan ​​and other ports along the coast. Seoul was once again abandoned on January 3, 1951.

From then until the end of the war, China played a dominant role, not only in the procurement of military and civilian equipment and equipment, but also in the direction of strategy. Although the North Korean army continues to play an important role, both military authorities and civilian historians identify this Chinese attack as marking a new phase of conflict. In addition, China will also play a major role in negotiations which began in 1952.

The War on the Hills and the Long Debate Begins
General Walton Walker died in a jeep accident towards the end of December 1950. His successor, General Matthew B. Ridgway, arrived at Christmas and began the process of rebuilding the Eighth Army whose morale was destroyed after losing.

The effort was successful, Seoul was recaptured and on March 27, 1951. The Eighth Army kept moving until it reached the thirty-eighth parallel. In Operation Rugged, Ridgway’s forces established the Wyoming and Kansas Lines, which would become the main line of resistance for the entire war.

In early 1952, most of the territorial rights had been severed, and in early November 1952 the United Nations Command adopted a defensive policy and began inviting the communists to negotiate.

During this period military operations were not carried out in large numbers, but the war was focused on hills, outposts, and small bunkers. This is because the number of troops and supplies is decreasing on both sides. Soldiers and machines are limited by the scope of tasks, such as destroying a fortress, dismantling a bunker or disrupting supply lines.

The battle was confined to the hills, and the units involved were often no more than a company of troops. Success or failure at the conference table is reflected in success or failure on the ground. Peace talks continued, as the fighting in the hills was still fierce.

The United Nations and communist countries entered into negotiations with very different concepts and desires. In addition, problems arise around prisoners of war between the two parties. The negotiation process was very slow and frustrating, talks were stopped many times, and consequently reflected the political atmosphere rather than the military.

End of the Korean War: Weapons
Shortly after Joseph Stalin’s death on March 5, 1953, the communists returned to the negotiating table and agreed to exchange prisoners. Changes in the international environment were reflected in various peace proposals offered. However, the clash of weapons depends on the agreement on the exchange of prisoners of war …

Whatever affects the achievement of the final agreement is difficult to ascertain. Certainly included the death of Joseph Stalin and Soviet domestic problems. The truce was signed by General William K. Harrison and General Mark Clark for the United Nations, Marshal Peng The-huai for the Republic of China, and Marshall Kim Il Sung and General Nam Il for North Korea. The Republic of Korea did not sign the agreement.

Despite having reached the ranks of weapons, there are still large numbers of North Koreans and a much smaller number of South Koreans refusing to be repatriated. Thus creating new disputes in the future between the two Koreas.

The Korean War brought huge losses to both sides. At least 33,741 US troops were killed in military action, 2,827 were killed in war-related situations, and 103,284 injured. While the death toll for the Republic of South Korea alone reached 59,000 killed and 290,000 troops wounded, plus civilian casualties that were enough to bring the toll to almost three million people.

More casualties were on the side of North Korea and China, at least 500,000 troops were killed and one million injured.

For material losses, South Korea was the most disadvantaged. Some villages were lost to the war and Seoul, the nation’s capital, was mostly razed to the ground. Railroad lines, communications, entire state infrastructure, hydroelectric power plants, factories, civil buildings, even farms and rice fields were destroyed.

Russian Japanese War

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Japan’s Russian War is a military conflict between Japan and Russia in the Far East. This conflict caused Russia to abandon its expansionary policy in the region and Japan became the first Asian power in modern times to defeat European power.

Background of the Japanese Russian War

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia had become a world power that counts with large areas in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. On the other hand, Japan is seen as a rising Asian power thanks to the Meiji Restoration.

In 1904, the Russian Empire, ruled by the autocratic Tsar Nicholas II, was seen as one of the largest territorial forces in the world.

In that year the Siberian shipping center from Vladivostok was forced to close for months due to winter. Therefore, the empire needed a harbor of warm water in the Pacific Ocean, both for trade purposes and a base for its growing navy.

To overcome this problem, Tsar Nicholas turned his attention to the Korean peninsula and China’s Liaodong. The Russian Empire had rented a port on the Liaodong Peninsula from China known as Port Arthur, but they wanted to have a strong base of operations under their control.

Meanwhile, Japan has paid special attention to Russia’s influence in the East Asian region since the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895. During the war, Russia provided military support to the Qing Empire in China during the conflict, which resulted in two Asian powers clashing with each other other.

With the history of Russian military aggression, at first Japan wanted to find an agreement by offering control of Manchuria, China. In return Japan will continue to maintain its influence over Korea.

However, Russia rejected Japan’s offer and demanded that North Korea from the 39th parallel be used as a neutral zone.

After negotiations failed, Japan chose the path of war by carrying out a surprise attack on the Russian navy at Port Arthur on February 8, 1904.

The Japanese Imperial Navy attack on the Russian Far East Fleet at Port Arthur was designed to intimidate Russian troops.

Under the leadership of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Imperial Japanese Navy sent torpedo ships to attack Russian navy ships. The attack damaged three of Russia’s largest ships: Tsesarevich, Retvizan and Pallada.

The next battle from Port Arthur began the next day.

Although the remnants of Russia’s Far East Fleet were largely protected inside the port at Port Arthur, previous attacks had succeeded in preventing Russia from fighting in the open sea. Japan also tried to blockade the port but failed.

Russia did not remain silent, they tried to counter the attack using mines. The counterattack managed to damage two Japanese warships. Nevertheless Japan still showed dominance in Port Arthur and continued to bombard the port with heavy weapons.

The Battle of Liaoyang
After attempts to attack the Russian fort on the ground failed and instead resulted in significant casualties for Japan, the persistence of the Asian forces finally paid off.

At the end of August, troops from northern Russia sent to assist the fleet at Port Arthur were beaten back by the Japanese at the Battle of Liaoyang. The Japanese attack was carried out from a new position obtained on the mainland around the port.

By the end of 1904, the Japanese navy had sunk every ship in the Russian Pacific fleet and had taken control of its garrison on a hill overlooking the harbor.

In early January 1905, Russian Major General Anatoly Stessel, commander of the Port Arthur garrison, decided to surrender because he thought the port was no longer worth defending. The decision surprised the leaders of both parties.

The decision to surrender Stessel, made Japan achieve a significant victory in the war. Meanwhile, Stessel was convicted of treason and sentenced to death for his decision, even though he was finally forgiven.

The Russian Navy also suffered heavy losses during the Battle of the Yellow Sea, forcing imperial leaders to mobilize their Baltic Fleet to the region as reinforcements.

War in Manchuria and Korea
At a time when Russia was disrupted and demoralized, Japanese ground forces began to control the Korean peninsula after landing at Incheon in South Korea now. Within two months, they had taken over Seoul and the entire peninsula.

In late April 1904, Japanese ground forces began planning an attack on Russian-controlled Manchuria in northeast China. During the first ground battle on the Yalu River, Japan launched a successful offensive against Russian Eastern Detachment and forced them to retreat back to Port Arthur in May 1904.

After going through intermittent battles during the Manchuria winter, the next important land battle in the conflict began on February 20, 1905, when Japanese troops invaded Russia in Mukden. The days of hard fighting ensued.

The great battle involved 330,000 Russian troops against 270,000 Japanese troops. This is one of the biggest land battles in history.

At the Battle of Mukden, the Japanese succeeded in pushing Russia and eventually forced them into full retreat. On March 10, after three weeks of fighting, Russia lost a significant number of troops and was pushed back north of Mukden. The loss in this battle was huge, around 89,000 Russians and 71,000 Japanese troops were killed.

Decisive Battle in the Tsushima Strait
Although Japan had achieved important victories during the Battle of Mukden, on the other hand they also suffered significant casualties.

Russian Baltic Fleet reinforcements finally arrived in May 1905, after sailing nearly 20,000 nautical miles – an extraordinary task, especially in the early 1900s – they still faced the daunting challenge of having to navigate the Sea of ​​Japan to get to Vladivostok, with Port Arthur no longer open to them.

To avoid Japanese surveillance, they chose to sail at night. However, Russian reinforcements can still be found by Japan, after a hospital ship turned on their lights in the dark.

Once again under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Japanese navy tried to block Russian roads to Vladivostok and resulted in the outbreak of fighting in the Tsushima Strait on May 27, 1905.

On the following day, Russia lost eight battleships and more than 5,000 people. Only three ships finally reached their destination in Vladivostok.

This decisive victory forced Russia to negotiate a peace agreement.

Although Japan had won the war convincingly, the victory was costly, so the state treasury was almost empty. As a result, Japan lacked the negotiating power that could be expected.

Under the terms of the agreement signed by both parties on September 5, 1905, Russia handed over Port Arthur to Japan, while defending the northern part of Sakhalin Island, which is located off the Pacific coast. Russia also agreed to leave Manchuria and recognize Japanese control over the Korean peninsula.

On the financial side Tsar Nicholas refused to pay compensation to Japan. The Tsar’s rejection was supported by Roosevelt. As a result, Japan accused the Americans of deceiving them and anti-American demonstrations in Tokyo appeared.

A series of embarrassing defeats of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War made the Russian Empire lose dignity and increase the Russian people’s hatred of the Tsar’s government. This hatred would later ignite political fire which eventually resulted in the overthrow of the government in the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.

Although tensions in the region are far from over, the Russo-Japanese War has shifted the balance of global power, marking the first time in modern history that Asians have defeated Europeans in military battles. This war will also mark the start of a war involving world powers in the Pacific region.

Cursed Crusaders Fear Saladin

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The story of Saladin Al-Ayyub or Saladin is often tinged with flattery. But there is another side to the cruelty of the commander in the Second Volume Crusade which made him very feared.

“Joseph, pack your things! We will leave! “

It was December 1168. More than twenty years before the Second Crusade broke out which would be an important event for the Islamic Kingdom to take Jerusalem. The governed figure is the nephew of a fat bodied one-eyed swordsman. The old commander is named Shirkuh.

This young man who is being governed is very different from his uncle. Thin, frail and 31 years old. Good looking, fair skinned, and has a melancholy facial line. His name is Yusuf bin Najmuddin. From the Kurds. On that day he was assigned by Sultan Nuruddin to take Shirkuh to bring the Islamic Kingdom troops from Damascus to Egypt to free Egypt from attacks by Christians. At that time Joseph was so scared.

“Like a man who is escorted to his death,” Yusuf suggested as told by Karen Armstrong in Holy War: The Crusades and Their Impacts on Today’s World (2001: 372-410).

After entering Egypt a few months later, the uncle suddenly died. Egypt has been mastered again. The problem then arises, who should replace the uncle?

Many amirs (leaders) are more worthy than Joseph, but some officials want someone who is loyal with a more friendly personality. Yusuf was the youngest and seemed inexperienced and the weakest among the emirs in the Shirkuh army, he was chosen to lead Egypt.

But who would have thought, a figure who was thought to be weak and too soft actually turned into a strong and effective figure in his jihad campaign to take Jerusalem. “When God gave me the land of Egypt, I was sure that He also intended to give me the land of Palestine,” Yusuf said in his inauguration as Vizier (a kind of governor) in Egypt.

And in the end, people will get to know their nickname: Saladin, which means “religious justice”. Or the crusaders knew him by the nickname “Saladin”. The most respected warlord – and at the same time feared – crusaders.

Saladin did not get the throne for granted. He first had to argue with Sultan Nuruddin who gave him orders along with his uncle when he was young and so innocent a few years before. Luckily, destiny was like appointing Saladin to lead Muslim troops in his jihad campaign. In the midst of Sultan Nuruddin preparing to fight Saladin’s “rebellion” in Egypt, on May 15, 1174 the Sultan died. Make the chair “caliph” empty just like that.

Saladin’s reputation as a highly religious figure made it easy for fanatics to put their support in him. The scattered and scattered Islamic provinces are united beneath it.

In the end, after 1181, for the first time – and the only one – in Islamic history, a Muslim empire that was so large and united in one banner. And at the same time, the name Yusuf sank engulfed in the greatness of his own nickname: Saladin Al-Ayyubi.

Saladin’s cruelty

In one of the most devastating battles in the second volume of the Crusade, there is a story that continues to be a picture of the crusaders how terrible Saladin’s army in the land of Palestine. The battle that took place on Mount Hattin, the Europeans called it “Battle of Hattin”.

The battle is also told – at least – by Ridley Scott in the film Kingdom of Heaven (2005). A battle that was even more fierce than the attempt to seize the City of Jerusalem itself a few months later.

The Crusaders were led by Guy de Lusignan at the time. A fanatic who became King of Jerusalem after the death of Sibylla’s son, King Baldwin V who succeeded his uncle, King “Lepra” Baldwin IV who was known to be very wise. Guy is very ambitious to finish off the “infidel forces” and is convinced that his invasion of Tiberias (the place where Saladin’s troops resided) was God’s destiny.

The battle of Hattin also had a chance to change perceptions about Saladin who was known to be compassionate to his enemies. Imaduddin al-Ishfakhani, Saladin’s secretary revealed his testimony, “That day I witnessed how Saladin killed the unbelievers to give breath to Islam and destroy polytheism to build monotheism.”

It was Reynauld of Chattilon, Guy the King of Jerusalem’s right hand, that made Saladin turn into a cruel figure. Four years earlier, Reynauld had killed Saladin’s younger sister when a ceasefire was still established between the crusaders and Muslim troops. Raping and slaughtering all Muslim caravans passing through Palestinian land. Execute and plunder Muslim territories.

When a Muslim warns of a truce still in effect, Reynauld instead rebukes, “Let your Muhammad come and help you!”

As if it was not enough to provoke Saladin, Reynauld also had a plan to attack the Muslim holy city: Mecca. This outrageous plan actually provides a multiplied force on the part of Muslim forces. All the tribes then united under Saladin’s banner and eliminated their respective disputes. Saladin also swore, “I will kill him with my own hands.” Then there was the biggest battle in the history of the Second Volume Crusade which was so cruel and decisive.

The defeat of the fanatics

Although the jihad campaign is a way of bringing all Muslim forces together, on the opposite side the same campaign is carried out in a far more banal way. Deadly common sense and seem to believe that God will help the Crusaders with miracles.

One of the signs came when Guy agreed to Reynauld’s proposal to go directly to Saladin’s troops in Tiberias. These blind fanatics ignore military reasoning. Hunt down Shaluhddin’s forces in the open instead of waiting behind the walls of the Jerusalem City castle.

With his 20 thousand troops, Guy and Raunauld crossed the Galilee valleys in the hot summer. Overburdened with their heavy armor. Saladin – although someone who is very religious – is a military commander with exceptional strategic intelligence. He knows that access to water is a decisive way for the battle this time.

Saladin dammed up water supplies and drained many springs. Instruct small group archers to target enemy soldiers who are separated from the group. The crusaders were half crazy because of thirst. Eventually they arrived at the Sea of ​​Galilee in a state of exhaustion and realized that the only source of water was the place where Saladin’s army camp was located.

Even without this tactic, Saladin actually could still win the battle – more than 10,000 Muslim troops, but Saladin knew, behind Guy and Reynauld, there was the City of Jerusalem that must be captured. In Saladin’s plan, it would be futile if the victory at Bukit Hattin did not continue to the next victory.

Under conditions of extreme fatigue and dehydration, the crusaders rested on Mount Hattin. The cheers of Saladin’s army were heard from afar. Shows how ready Saladin’s troops welcomed the victory that coincided on the 26/27 Ramadan. The Muslim holy day which Saladin finally commemorated as the night of the “nuzulul Quran” – the first day that the verses of the Koran were revealed to the world.

Finally at dawn on July 4, 1187 Saladin’s army set out to invade Hattin Hill where the crusaders were camping. Beating so hard and leaving only a few of them. Some of the barons and knights did escape the siege of Saladin’s army. Some of them were Balian de Ibelin, a figure who would lead the militia and the army of the people of Jerusalem to defend the city from Saladin’s army a few months later.

After the battle, Saladin brought the two most valuable prisoners into his tent. King Guy and Reynauld. Two men who were very tired and thirsty at the same time. Saladin gave Guy a refreshing ice water. Guy drank it, then gave it to Reynauld.

It is an Arabic tradition that a host cannot kill a man he feeds and drinks. When Reynauld drank so lightly without the host’s orders, Saladin asked, “Who allowed you to drink?”

Reynauld just didn’t budge. Saladin continued his sentence, “Therefore I am not required to show mercy to you.” As soon as the sentence was over, Saladin immediately pulled the sword out of his belt and beheaded Reynauld in the presence of a frightened and confident Guy that his turn would come.

Seeing Guy who was afraid Saladin then said, “The king did not kill the king. Why don’t you approach a great king to learn from his example? “

The great king in question is King Baldwin IV, the king who suffered from leprosy until he finally died. Leaving the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem in the grip of King Guy the blind fanatic and making the Islamic Kingdom finally able to master it.

The Cruelty of Crazy French Colonialism

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Not only Britain, Spain or the Netherlands are famous for their colonialism. France, too. In fact, this not-so-big country almost controlled around 7 percent of the world. A crazy achievement, although to get it France must do a lot of heinous actions.

Yes, just like the Dutch or other invaders, France is also known for its cruelty to the countries that were successfully colonized. Even when compared to the Netherlands, France is even more violent. Maybe it’s not something to be thankful for, but the suffering of the people of Indonesia will be even crazier like France had succeeded in making our country as their colony.

There are many countries that France has succeeded in subjugating, and just like the usual invaders, this newly emerging country has done many inhuman things. Following the review.

1. Algeria
Little difference with Indonesia which was colonized by the Netherlands, Algeria, for almost 132 years, experienced hard times with French colonialism. Instead of doing many good things, the government of French colonialism actually made this country a hell of its own people. A lot of tyranny has been recorded. Including the severe massacres that had occurred in Guelma.

France was proven to have committed a major crime, and even President Francois Hollande admitted it himself. In a speech, the president said that Algeria was a victim of the cruel system of its country. Despite claiming to be, Hollande was reluctant to apologize for what his people had done in the past.

2. Mali
Mali is also a French colony known as no less miserable. In 1892, France succeeded in taking power over Mali and making this country a coolie. Yes, most of the people are forced to become manual laborers through agriculture. Peanuts and cotton are the main productions.

Their suffering was so great, even this act of coercion was almost like slavery. Fortunately, after World War II the situation in Mali changed a lot and finally they were able to become independent in 1960. However, the suffering apparently still wasn’t really over for the Mali population. In recent years, France is known to carry out a military invasion that has sacrificed the lives of many civilians there.

3. Haiti
The French motivation in controlling Haiti was initially influenced by the El Dorado fable. In the past, it was believed that somewhere in Central America there was a city full of gold called El Dorado. This also made France tempted, until in the end to expand but did not produce anything. Even so, they managed to colonize Haiti.

Because the French motivation from the beginning was a treasure, so when in Haiti they were doing exploits like crazy. Unfortunately, Haiti doesn’t have many things. So that slavery is carried. Haitian slavery is like an economic commodity. During the period of French colonialism, slaves were traded like merchandise. Until finally decades after this event, Haiti rose and could get freedom. As a country or a human.

4. Chad
Chad was a prosperous country at first, even the most comfortable compared to the surrounding areas. However, this happy period ended when France colonized them in the early 19th century. The goal was the same, namely to be exploited and monopolized according to will.

There was so much suffering experienced by the Chadian people when it was colonized by France. Including horrific events in which religious leaders are treated cruelly until slaughtered. This era of French colonization then ended, but it still had a bad impact on Chad. The new government was successfully made but not in accordance with the conscience of the Chadian people. This even led to the coup plan to the civil war.

5. Vietnam
The history of the struggle of the Vietnamese people is not only about resistance against America, but also France. Yes, this one country was also quite a long time to colonize our neighbors. France treated Vietnam the same as other colonial areas. Massive exploitation of natural resources.

Vietnam’s struggle for independence is very heavy. They have to do many wars including the most severe is the Dien Phu War which takes years with hundreds of thousands of victims. In the end Vietnam won this upheaval and gained independence. Unfortunately, when France left, America intervened and there was the legendary Vietnam War.

Whether this is something to be grateful for or not, but you could say Indonesia is fortunate enough not to be colonized by France. As the story of the countries above are treated very improperly by France. Actually, going to France or the Netherlands, whose name is colonialism through colonialism is a bad thing. Seeing what the colonizing nations have done in the past, then they should apologize and compensate for all the things they have done.